Academic Essay Tutorial - Chapter 7: Coherence and Quality - by homeworkvan

Chapter 7: Coherence and Quality

In academic writing, coherence is considered to be the sequential arrangement of all the ideas in a paragraph to ensure that they flow smoothly from one sentence to the next. Developing a coherent article/essay makes it easier for the person reading the work to understand your ideas. There are four basic mechanical considerations which are used to help one develop a clear transition between concepts. These are: the use of transitional expressions, ensuring that you repeat crucial words and phrases, using clear pronoun references, and utilizing parallel form. The three major steps to achieving paragraph and sentence unity (coherence) are explained below. 

              1. Transition Phrases

Transition phrases are used to ensure that a scholar’s sentences, paragraphs, and ideas are arranged in a logical manner.

NB: This does not mean they are applicable in EVERY sentence. ONLY when points need to be connected

          2. Signal Phrases & Rhetorical Verbs

Signal phrases can be used to easily integrate quotations into one’s paper, and can alert readers to the acknowledgment of the ideas of another author. Essentially, signal phrases are used to clarify any issues regarding the origin of the ideas in an article.

When using citations, they can be written either directly or indirectly ex.

'Adam and Roy (2013) propose....'

as opposed to

'...as the best solution (Adam & Roy, 2013)

NOTE: NEVER USE the phrase “say” For ex.  'Roy and Adam (2013) say... '

Scholars should avoid the repeated use of the same signal verb to ensure that they keep the reader interested. However, writers should ensure that the verbs they choose appropriately characterize the context of the concept that has been used as an example. For instance, if a source was clearly against an idea or claim, then the writer should select a verb that disputes the content. Here is a list of common signal phrase verbs writers may use:

Others include

accepts                        considers                     explains                        rejects              contrasts

contradicts                   highlights                    reminds                        adds                 insists

identifies                     responds                      affirms                         criticizes          shows

shares                          argues                          declares                        interprets         believes

asserts                          defends                        lists                              states               describes

denies                          maintains                     stresses                        cautions           points out

outlines                       suggests                       claims                          discusses         urges

supports                       compares                     discusses                        praises             confirms

concludes                    emphasizes                  proposes                        verifies                       

enumerates                  refutes                         warns                           acknowledges

demonstrates               illustrates                     illuminates                  contends          posits

assumes                       presumes                     presupposes                 proposes          postulates

theorizes                      clarifies                       defines                         extrapolates     expounds

elaborates                    belabors                       offers                           evinces                        corroborates

omits                           dismisses                     dispels                         reiterates         sheds light on

exemplifies                 concedes                      agrees                          undermines     strengthens

                       3. Structure

Before a scholar begins an essay, they need to properly understand the subject they intend to discuss and ensure that they arrange their ideas in a logical manner in a paper. Below are examples of structures that can be used to ensure coherence and structural integrity in writing.

3.1 Chronological Pattern

Arrange the information in your paper according to a progression of time. Each main section of information (under a heading or paragraph) represents a particular period of time. This method is used for personal narratives (autobiography), events, imaginative stories, and realistic fiction. Signal phrases include before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier, later, and meanwhile.

For example

I. 1890 - 1915

1. First Important Event

2. Second Important Event

II. 1915 - 1940

1. First Significant Idea
2. Second Significant Concept

III. 1940 - 1965

1. First Key Ordeal
2. Second Key Ordeal

3.2 Sequential Pattern

The information should be arranged in a proper sequence that describes a given process. The main section of information (under any heading or paragraph) represents a particular step in the process. For example

I. Step One: Harvest the apples

1. Harvesting procedure #1
2. Harvesting procedure #2

II. Step Two: Prepare the grapes

1. Preparation procedure #1
2. Preparation procedure #2

3.3 Spatial Pattern

Arrange the information according to how they fit together in physical space. Usually used in Geography papers to explain how things fit together. Signal phrases include above, below, beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.

For example

I. JFK International Airport

1. Queens
2. Downtown Manhattan

II. Myrtle beach

1. Carolina Forest
2. Socastee

3.4 Compare-Contrast Pattern

Arrange the information according to how they similar to or different from one another. Signal phrases include (for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, same as, just as, correspondingly, compared to, as well as, at the same time, and similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although, whereas, in contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand, rather, instead, in spite of, unlike, meanwhile, and nevertheless.They are two methods to compare-contrast

1.      Step-by-step method

I. Equipment Cost

1. Annually
2. Biannually

II. Output Quality

1.   Inception point

2.   A decade later

2.      Block method

I. Areas of Comparison

1. Equipment quality
2.  Input cost

II. Contrast Areas

0. Output quality

1. Advantage-Disadvantage Pattern

3.5 Cause-Effect Pattern

In this pattern, information is broadly categorized according to two main section: Cause and Effect. It is normally used in persuasive papers to establish a causal relationship between variables. Signal phrases for cause and effect structures also include because, since, for, so, as a result, consequently, thus, and hence.

There are two methods.

1.      Block Method

I. Causes of internet addiction

1. Being idle
2. Excessive use

II. Effects of these causes

1. Reduced concentration levels
2. Wastage of time

2.      Step by Step Method

I. Cause: Being idle

1. Effect: Increased social media use
2. Effect: Time wastage

II. Cause: Excessive use

1. Effect: It is easy to become distracted
2. Effect: Addiction

3.6 Problem-Solution Pattern

In this pattern, information is broadly categorized according to two main section: problems and Solutions. It is normally used in persuasive papers to establish that a problem exists, and convince the reader on a particular solution.

I. Problem: Global warming

1. Increasing in global temperatures
2. Adverse weather conditions

II. Solution: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

1. Reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases
2. Bike riding is not a source of pollution

3.7 Topical/Thematically Pattern

This pattern is used when you are unable to use the other patterns and involved arranging information according to a particular topic and sub-topics. For example

I. Vehicles

A. European

1. Mercedes Benz
2. BMW

B. American

1. Cadillac
2. Dodge

3.8 Inverted pyramid

This structure simply dictates that one should arrange information beginning with the most important, coming down to the least important. This format is often used in writing works such as web articles where audiences often have low attention spans.

NOTE: The student should focus on organizing the content in a clear and persuasive manner after selecting the style they would like to use.

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Academic Essay Tutorial - Chapter 6: Presenting Your Argument - by homeworkvan

Chapter 6: Presenting Your Argument

The below techniques can assist writers in brainstorming on how they can present an issue in individual paragraphs.

NOTE: Some introductory techniques have a better effect than others depending on the context of the essay. You should apply your best judgment to decide on which technique may be best applicable to the situation at hand. For example, a persuasive paper cannot contain a narration.

Narration	The scholar can give the reader a story that describes the manner in which the events unfolded.
Description	In what way can the situation/concept be described?
Process	How is the object made? How is the object/idea implemented? How can one accomplish the task?
Cause	What is the root cause of the phenomenon?
Effect	What impact does the phenomenon have on other things?
Compare	In what way is it similar to another idea/object?
Contrast	In what manner does it differ from another idea?
Classification	Is the idea/object a part of a larger class? Can you name it?
Division	Is it possible to break the concept down into smaller groups? Can you name the group?
Formal definition	In what way is the idea defined by an authoritative/credible source, such as a Penal Code, a biochemistry guide, etc.?
Etymology	What is the origin of the word? Is the audience’s understanding of the concept improved by knowing the origin?  (If it doesn't make it easier to understand, there is no point of using it!)
Example	Can you name some examples of the idea/object in question?
Exposition	Explain the concept in a rephrased manner.
Negative Definition	What is the object/idea not?
Possible/impossible	Could the idea work? Has it worked before? Does the idea currently work? Why does it work?  Why not? In what ways is the application of this concept limited?
History	Is it possible to give a historic analysis of the concept
Diagram	Can the idea be indicated using a diagram?
Anecdote	Is it possible to tell a short story that explains the concept?

Examples include

Narration	"I once found myself lying on my hammock out in my backyard on my phone browsing my Facebook feed only to realize that I had spent my entire afternoon browsing through my social media accounts and that was when I realized how addictive social media can be…
Description	"The term social media collectively encompasses the websites and mobile applications that allow users to develop and share content…
Process	"Social media platforms primarily enlist the internet as a server to allow people with access to develop personalized accounts and interact with individuals online…
Cause	"The increased popularity of social media came about through three main factors—how easy it is to use, the increase in use of smartphones and their applications, and . . . "
Effect	"The use of social media has broken down communication barriers all across the globe. People can now share content instantaneously from one region to another given that both users have a device that can access the social networks and the internet. In the future…
Compare	"Social media is like an estate barbeque party. Everyone who shows up to the party is free to take as much food and drinks as they desire here, but good manners require the guests to bring ingredient(s)s to share with others. Similarly....."
Contrast	"The use of social media is vastly different from that of conventional streams of communication…
Classification	"Social media is a form of mass media and shares some similar characteristics with other types of mass media such as television, radio, and print. The unique factor that separates social media from other forms of mass media is.."
Division	Social media applications can be broke down into six main platforms on the basis of their function and purpose. One of these is photo sharing…
Formal definition	Oxford Living Dictionaries defines social media as the collective applications and websites that allow users to develop and share content and interact with others on social networks
Etymology	"The importance of social media can be derived from the etymology of the word itself. The compound word is comprised of two words, social is derived from a Latin noun and verb meaning "friend" or "allied." The word media derives its meaning from the Latin word media itself, something..”
Example	"Social media is everywhere. Everywhere you go, you find people on their phones checking who has messaged them or who has liked a photo that they posted…
Exposition	"Social media is a collection of photo and video sharing applications and general social networking websites..
Negative Definition	"The social media experience does not require any athletic ability; one can easily surf the web while lying on their couch. Additionally, the users are not inhibited by any kinds of restrictions as they browse their newsfeed..
Possible/impossible	"Social media could quite possibly become the primary form of communication given the dependency that people have developed with the increased use of the medium. . . ." OR, "Social media will never be able to replace in-person interactions since human beings are intrinsically designed to. . . ."
History	"Social media use was popularized in the late 20th century…”
Diagram	"Amazingly, one can be access their social media profiles at any time on their phones. In the diagram below..”
Anecdote	There is a story about a young boy who was asked to name six social media sites and five previous presidents that he knew. He was able to name more than six sites but was unable to name more than four previous presidents and that shows how widespread social media use has become  . . . ."

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Academic Essay Tutorial - Chapter 5: Developing your Paper - by homeworkvan

Chapter 5: Developing your Paper

You can follow the below steps to assist you in developing an A grade paper. Kindly note that the steps outlined are not conclusive, and are just a general guideline. I encourage each writer to develop their own method of writing an academic paper quickly.

1.      Research

This is perhaps the most critical step in the entire essay development process since it lays the background for strong essays and research papers. Poor quality essays are usually not well researched since they normally miss a lot of the major talking points and ideas.

Avoid an overreliance on a single resource as it is considered poor academic practice. For a balanced argument in your essay, research a wide variety of resources on the topic to identify the multiple perspectives involved. Keep track of the particular argument position forwarded by each resource. Have an adequate list of sources depending on the word/page count of your paper.   

2.      Select a paper structure.

Identify the paper structure most appropriate for your type of paper to ensure it is coherent (arguments are presented with a logical flow). See chapter 7 for the different types of structures.

3.      Outline

Before writing an essay, it helps to break it into its constituent parts to make it more manageable. This is called developing an outline and it should contain the major talking points you identified in your research. This step helps your organize your thoughts and arguments.

Your strongest points should always be in your first paragraph.

For ex.

Title: Is Animal Testing Ethical?

1. Introduction
1. Introductory statement
2. Thesis statement: While concerns regarding the ethics of animal testing are valid, it is prudent to analyze the benefits and drawbacks of animal testing so as to determine the efficacy of the practice and guide a framework for future solutions.
2. Body

1. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Animal testing contributes to vital life-saving drugs and treatments.
1. Scientific advances
2. Can study side effects of drugs.
2. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): There are no adequate alternatives to testing experimental cures and treatments on a living, whole body system

1. Human and animal anatomy are too complex for cell culture methods.
2. Computer models are still unreliable.
2. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Animal testing is practiced with ethical considerations for the animals.

1. Scientists do not use animals or inflict suffering on them if it avoidable.
2. Scientists operate under various controls for protecting animals
2. Conclusion

1. Closing statement
2. Restate thesis: With the need to develop cures and treatments for human and animal ailments, animal testing is morally and ethically justified..

NOTE: Always write a dummy/working thesis statement and refine it upon concluding your paper when you have a better idea of what your paper is about.

To make it easier for me, I usually go the extra mile and clarify how many words I would write in each section.  

The introduction and conclusion should make up not more than 25% of the total word count of the essay. For instance for a 500 word essay, I could break it into

·       Introduction (80 words)

·       Body paragraphs (340 words=4*85 words) try and make your paragraphs almost the same length. However, this is not mandatory. Unless it is creative writing, do not have body paragraphs shorter than 5 sentences in length. 

·       Conclusion (80 words)

NOTE: avoid having a paragraph that takes up an entire page. The purpose of the paragraph is not only to logically organize your points but also to provide a pause for the reader. If you have lengthy paragraphs, the readers mind does not take a pause and they get bored with your paper or get lost along the way.  

Now it looks much easier to handle. 

1.      Present your argument

In this section, you fill in the outline with analysis and evidence. You can use any of the techniques outlined in Chapter 6. You can choose to cite the evidence while presenting them, or take note of them and cite the sources in the next step. However, you will save a lot of effort and time by noting down each resource as you write the paper instead of writing them down after concluding your writing.

If you choose to use my style, the moment you meet the word count for each sections, end it and go to the next section. 

2.      Referencing

Add the references and follow the style provided in the order instructions. 

3.      Proofreading

Carefully review your essay for grammar, style, and spelling mistakes. In addition, ensure the paper adheres to the instructions and marking rubric regarding content, focus, organization, and development of ideas.  

To proofread for grammar and spelling errors, a good resource to use in grammarly.com. For the rest of the errors, check your work against the checklist in chapter 8. 

4.      Plagiarism Checking

Ensure you review the paper for plagiarism before turning it in to the class. There exist plagiarism checker services such as Turnitin.com that can assist in your plagiarism review.

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