[탐구 에세이 샘플] Exploratory Essay: Technology in the Classroom Essay Sample - by Homeworkvan

안녕하세요!

이번 포스트에서는 Exploratory 에세이 아웃라인에 이어서 Exploratory Essay 샘플을 올려 드릴거에요!

주제는 Technology in the Classroom 에 관련해서 탐구 에세이를 작성하였구요~

저번 포스트에서 작성했던 Exploratory Essay Outline 베이스로 작성하였어요 :)

혹시, Exploratory 에세이 관련 과제 받으시거나 Exploratory Essay 를 어떻게 적어야하는지 궁금하신분들은 참고 하시면 좋을것같아요! 그럼 한번 읽어보시고 학업에 많은 도움 되시길 바랄게요! 더 궁금하신 사항있으시면 언제든지 저희 이메일로 연락주세요!

모두 새해복 많이 받으세요 :) Happy New Year!
감사합니다!

Exploratory Essay Sample: 탐구 에세이 샘플

Technology in the Classroom

            Over the years, technology has significantly improved every aspect of the human life from health care to agriculture. Inevitably, technology has permeated the learning environment and has become a critical component in the provision of quality education (Soykan, 2015). In the context of this explanatory essay, the focus is on technology as an enabler of the learning process by improving access to learning resources, improving the learning environment and enhancing communication and interactions between the teacher and students with different learning needs. Some of the technologies that have found use in teaching include projectors, electronic whiteboards, computers, video conferencing, mobile learning, 3D printing and many more (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). Stakeholders in the education sector agree that technology enhances the learning process by improving the efficacy of different teaching methods. Stakeholders in the education system include, but not limited to policy makers, administrators, educators, teachers, parents, students, and the society at large. Initially, some stakeholders in the education sector were cynical about introducing technology in the learning environment. They perceived it as an unwanted development in education which undermined the learning process by disrupting the attention of the students. However, emerging findings have squashed these fears by demonstrating an improvement in quality of the learning processes coupled with a notable improvement in student’s overall performance (Couture & Murgatroyd, 2012). As a result, there exists a consensus among the stakeholders that technology improves access to a wide range of learning resources, consequently improving the quality of education.

            Teachers play an important role in the learning process as they guide the students using different learning tools to enable them to grasp different concepts in subjects they pursue in school. A growing number of teachers are embracing technology in the classroom to enhance the learning process by ensuring the students have access to quality learning materials. There was a time teachers vehemently protested the use of mobile phones in the classroom. Today, many teachers encourage students to use their smart phones to conduct additional research. Over the years, mobile phones have developed from simple communication devices primarily meant for sending text messages and making calls to mini-computers capable of accessing the Internet. The ubiquitous nature of smartphones and laptops has also made distant learning possible by improving remote interactions between the students and the teacher. According to Sad and Goktas (2014), the majority of the teachers interviewed agreed that technology improved the effectiveness of teaching. They were able to contact students enrolled in distant learning more efficiently at any time anywhere. Essentially, technology has a positive impact on the teacher’s ability to teach and quality of the teaching.  

Besides supporting the use of technology in class, most teachers assert that the school administration should provide devices to students instead of allowing the students to bring their own devices. Essentially, install desktops in class in order to eliminate the need for the students to carry their laptops to class. According to Al-Zeidieyeen, Mei and Fook (2010), most of the students carry laptops to class followed by Chromebooks, tablets, and mobile phones. These technological devices have become an invaluable resource of learning for both the students and the teachers. However, teachers assert that the use of technology is most effective when a mix of electronic and conventional learning resources such as printed books are combined. Therefore, conventional teaching methods should not be completely abandoned as they contribute the student’s learning process.  

The adoption of technology in the classroom provides a more rich learning experience for students. A study conducted by Eskil, Ozgan and Balkar (2010) on the impact of classroom technology in students behavior revealed that technology improves learning and the students now expect it in their classrooms. Technology should be commonplace in learning institutions as it enables learning through stimulations. The students asserted gaining rich stimulations when using learning technologies as compared to conventional teaching methods. The more the students are exposed to stimulations in the education-instruction atmosphere, the more their learning becomes easier. Access to technology in the classroom improves the students’ ability to conduct independent research as well as query and evaluate new concepts (Eskil, Ozgan, & Balkar, 2010). As a result, students with access to learning technologies in the classroom are developing into individuals who think, ask and discover. Besides the positive effects on the students’ performance, technology use in the classroom ignites a positive attitude towards teaching (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). The conventional approach of a teacher leading the learning process using traditional teaching tools like blackboards pales in comparison to technology-aided learning. For instance, 3D printing has made it easy for students to study science subjects because it gives a vivid explanation of concepts through 3D models of different layers and colors. In concise, using technology in classroom increases the intelligibility of the lessons.

The adoption of technology in the classroom is aligned with the interests of parents to provide a stronger foundation for learning among their children. A study conducted by Soykan (2015) investigating the use of tablet computer in education revealed that parents perceive technology as improving the quality of education. Some of the abilities noted were the capacity to repeat lessons anytime, provision of communication between teacher and student independent of time and space, time-saving, ability to use internet as a resources, increased motivation and making lessons more fun. Moreover, the parents stated that access to the Internet enables the students to conduct research and have all the information at their hands (Soykan, 2015). Moreover, parents also think that technology is of great importance in today’s world, hence access at school will improve their technology proficiency. The findings also indicated that parents support the use of technology in the classroom to improve English literacy because most technologies use English as the primary language (Saran, Seferoglu, & Cagiltay, 2009). In essence, the parents perceive technology as enabling learning by helping the students have access more learning resources on the Internet in addition to improving the technology-use proficiency.

            Despite the high prices and occasional technical problems that affect technology use in the classroom, technology is effective in increasing motivation of the students and creating a conducive environment for advanced learning. I concur with teachers that technology in the classroom enables the transfer of many visual materials in computer environment. This is besides enabling effective use of these materials as coursework materials to save time in class. In most cases, technology adds visual element to the learning process and provides advantages and convenience in teaching subjects which are difficult to learn otherwise (Couture & Murgatroyd, 2012). I also believe that technology use in the classroom increases the learning speed of students as a result of the interactions and visual aids provided by technology. The efficiency of teaching experienced by the teachers leads to ripple benefits for the students. The use of technology in the classroom helps the students to learn faster and have fun whilst at it. These observations highlight the importance of incorporating different technologies in the classroom environment.

            Students often gain more from their learning when using classroom technologies than relying on conventional learning approaches. The students are able to interact with various concepts through hearing, seeing, touching, and learned subject matter. Moreover, technology in the classroom provide material richness by sourcing more resources on the Internet. The Internet is awash with learning resources with broader and deeper coverage of concepts learnt in class. As a result, the students can receive complementary learning in the absence of a teacher by relying on the Internet. It is worth emphasizing that technology use in the classroom improves the comprehension of complex scientific concepts by enabling the students to perform experiments better. This is besides supporting collaborative learning as students and the teacher have access to a wide variety of digital communication tool to engage in discussion even after class. I also concur with the parents’ perspective that technology increases students’ motivation in addition to making learning more fun.

            The use of technology in learning environments is supported by teachers, parents as well as the students. The benefits outweigh concerns that technology may cause disruptions in class. On the contrary, technology is the classroom is an enabler of the learning process as it provides access to a wide variety of learning resources in addition to assisting students grasp complex concepts through stimulations. Technology not only improves communication between the student and the teacher, but also helps to foster strong interpersonal bonds. It also motivates the students because they can have fun whilst learning. Moreover, parents believe that technology enhances the capacity to repeat lessons anytime, provision of communication between teacher and student independent of time and space, time-saving, ability to use internet as a resources. Finally, it makes it easier for the teachers to disseminate information to students with varying learning capabilities. Technologies such as 3D printing teachers to model complex concepts in order to enable the students to understand it in their own way. 

References

Al-Zeidieyeen, N. J., Mei, L. L., & Fook, F. S. (2010). Teachers’ attitudes and levels of technology use in classrooms: the case of jordan schools. International Educational Studies, 3(2), 211-218.

Couture, J.-C., & Murgatroyd, S. (2012). Rethinking School Leadership – Creating Great Schools for All Students. Edmonton: FutureThink Press / Alberta Teachers’ Association.

Eskil, M., Ozgan, H., & Balkar, B. (2010). Students' Opinions on Using Classroom Technology in Science and Technology Lessons: A Case Study For Turkey (Kilis City). The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(1), 165-175.

Lavin, A. M., Korte, L., & Davies, T. L. (2011). The impact of classroom technology on student behavior. Journal of Technology Research, 1-13.

Sad, S. N., & Goktas, O. (2014). Preservice teachers' perceptions about using mobile phones and laptops in education as mobile learning tools. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45, 606–618.

Saran, M., Seferoglu, G., & Cagiltay, K. (2009). Mobile assisted language learning: English pronunciation at learners’ fingertips. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 34, 97-114.

Soykan, E. (2015). Views of students’, teachers’ and parents’ on the tablet computer usage in education. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 10(3), 228-244.

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The following is PLAGIARISM REPORT for '[탐구 에세이 샘플] Exploratory Essay: Technology in the Classroom Essay Sample - by Homeworkvan'.

 

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[원인과 결과 에세이 샘플] Causes and Effects of Global Warming: Research Essay Sample - by Homeworkvan

안녕하세요!

이번 포스트에서는 Cause and Effect 에세이 아웃라인에 이어서 Cause and Effect 에세이 샘플을 올려 드릴거에요!

주제는 Global Warming (지구 온난화)에 관련해서 원인과 결과 에세이 작성하였구요~

저번 포스트에서 작성했던 아웃라인 베이스로 작성하였어요 :)

혹시, 원인과 결과 에세이 관련 과제 받으시거나 Cause and Effect Essay 를 어떻게 적어야하는지 궁금하신분들은 참고 하시면 좋을것같아요! 그럼 한번 읽어보시고 학업에 많은 도움 되시길 바랄게요! 더 궁금하신 사항있으시면 언제든지 저희 이메일로 연락주시길 바랄게요!

감사합니다!

Cause and Effect Essay Sample: 원인과 결과 에세이 샘플

Causes and Effects of Global Warming

Global warming is one of the major components driving climate change, and its affects have already started to become evident in some parts of the world. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, climate change is defined as rising surface temperatures in the Earth as a result of increased greenhouse gas levels (NASA, 2018). Earth can maintain habitable life partly due to its ability to achieve a fairly stable average temperature that can provide conditions suitable for life; and allow for life-sustaining warmth and flowing water. However, continued habitability is greatly impacted by global warming making it an important issue. Evidence has shown an upward trend in average surface temperatures, even keeping in mind the temperature variations among regions. The earth has been warming at the rate of 0.9⁰ F per century since 1901, but this rate has doubled since 1975 (NASA, 2018). An increase in greenhouse gases due to the economic exploitation of natural resources and expanding scope of human activities has contributing to a global warming of average Earth surface temperatures that could potentially lead harmful social, economic, and environmental consequences.

Causes of Global Warming

The leading cause of global warming is the increase in greenhouses gasses in the earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse molecules absorb heat derived from sunlight and radiated back to space; and this heat is in turn trapped within the atmosphere (NASA, 2018). Based on this background, greenhouse gas emissions are responsible for this trend of rising surface temperatures. The most important greenhouse molecules involved in global warming are water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane, and nitrous oxide. Also key is the concept of long-lived and short-lived molecules. Long-loved molecules semi-permanently block heating from escaping, and do not respond either physically or chemically to temperature changes. These gases are responsible for radiative climate ‘forcing’ changes (Sherwood et al., 2016). On the other hand, water vapor is a short-lived gas that act as feedbacks by responding to changes in earth’s temperature. While the direct cause of global warming is related to this increase in greenhouse gases, human activities remain the largest contributor to the rapid increase in greenhouses gases.

The direct impact of human activity in the gaseous makeup of the earth’s atmosphere is clearly demonstrated through the high increase in carbon dioxide post-Industrial Revolution. Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas emitted from human activities, accounting for 67-75% of man-made emissions (Lewis, 2016). This is mainly attributable to burning of fossil fuels, and electricity generation making up for 40% of all CO² emissions. Population growth and technological advancement since the Industrial Revolution have increased demand for electricity, 93% of which is derived through coal-burning power plants (Lewis, 2016). CO² emissions are further augmented by fossil fuels used in the transportation and manufacturing sectors.  According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), these factors are consistent with the observation that CO₂ levels in the atmosphere have increased by more than a third since the industrial revolution, with a 42% increase between 1990 and 2010 (EPA, 2017a). Additionally, the process of production and transport of oil, natural gas and coal increases methane emissions. Overall, the trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, matches humanity’s technological advancement.

Human activities have disrupted the earth’s carbon cycle by removing trees which act as carbon sinks to trap atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation is one of the direct results of increased population growth, as forests are cleared away to create room for settlement, agriculture, and other economic activities. Deforestation by itself, together with the accompanying soil degradation, result in more carbon being added to the atmosphere. Second, deforestation interferes with carbon capture, a process during which trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (Trenberth et al., 2014). Although deforestation is not as significant a threat as fossil fuel burning, it still contributes to a great extent to increased CO₂ emissions.

Various human practices produce significant quantities of emissions that promote global warming. First, agricultural practices should be considered. With more extensive and concentrated livestock rearing, methane produced by digestion in herbivores such as cows and sheep is increasingly released. Also, increased use of chemical fertilizers containing nitrogen increases nitrous oxide composition in the atmosphere (Bilgen, 2014). Second, household, commercial, and industrial activities or products release fluorinated gases. Chlorofluorocarbons also played a chief role in the past, especially before regulatory legislation (Lewis, 2016). All the above-mentioned factors are critical in understanding and mitigating global warming, due to the role of non- CO₂ green-house emissions. Methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases comprise a relatively small proportion of emissions. However, they are much more effective at heat trapping and hence have greater 100-year global warming potential. For instance, methane and nitrous oxide contribute to 17% and 6% of man-made global warming respectively (Lewis, 2016). Overall, the rapid increase in all greenhouse gases has a connection to human activities over the past century.

Effects of Global Warming

The increase in average surface temperatures are likely to have adverse environmental impacts. At the ecosystem level, there is a high risk of some species becoming extinct due to disruption of habitats. This will especially affect climate-sensitive species, such as those dependent on mountain ecosystems, salt-water, or cold water sources (EPA, 2017b). Change in weather patterns also affects major annual life cycle events such as migration, food availability, and reproduction; increasing species vulnerability. On the whole, global warming will reduce biodiversity and interfere with survival of interdependent species. Also, the natural environment will be affected through change in precipitation patterns, extreme weather changes and events, as well as rapidly rising sea levels. Although average precipitation levels have been rising since 1900, global warming has increased the magnitude of these changes. As temperature rise, so does evaporation resulting in cloud formation and precipitation. However, the projected increase in precipitation represents an overall change in precipitation on the earth; such that global warming will have different effects on precipitation on different regions (Hansel et al., 2015).  However, the recent trend in most areas within the United States is towards heavier precipitation. Paradoxically, global warming produces two opposite extremes of weather: flooding and drought. Some areas may therefore become drier, even as neighboring regions or most of the surrounding areas experience heavier rains. As evaporation occurs, high temperatures at the same time also increase moisture loss from the soil. Significantly, one of the major consequences of global warming is the spread of desertification (Trenberth et al., 2014). Heat waves are also likely to become more frequent and intense. Another change in precipitation will be increased storm events, including hurricanes and tropical cyclones. Furthermore, sea levels continue to rise. The mechanism for this is twofold:  expansion effects of warmer temperatures on seawater, as well as partial melting of glaciers. This puts coastal human settlements at risk, the most relevant and current example being the Maldives (Hansen et al., 2015). Oceans absorb more than 80% of heat created by global warming, and sea temperatures are estimated to rise 1-4 inches by 2100 (NASA, 2018). On the whole, the environmental impacts of global warming are far-reaching.

Moreover, global warming will have adverse social impacts, mainly due to changes in precipitation. The social effects will be non-uniform, mainly affecting less-developed and low-lying regions. Even though global warming may favor crop conditions in others, it may impair crop farming in others. Reduced crop productivity may be due to drought, damage from extreme weather events, climate instability, and increased susceptibility to some diseases and pests. In the tropics and subtropics, the spread of desertification has been cited as one of chief reasons for famine; and food security in Africa will especially be threatened (Burke, Hsiang & Miguel, 2015).  Moreover, compromised, lower human resource productivity, and the cost of natural disasters will affect economic productivity. Global warming has a greater negative impact on economy of low-income countries (Burke et al., 2015). Though partly due to these countries’ low adaptive capability and economic resources, it is also because global warming may most affect core industries such as agriculture or fisheries. Finally, public health will be indirectly affected due to injury and loss of life in flooding or droughts; food insecurity, and increased spread of certain diseases (Rossati, 2017). This further compounds political problems such as violence in some countries as resources continue to dwindle amid growing environmental challenges.

Conclusion

An increase in greenhouse gases due to the economic exploitation of natural resources and expanding scope of human activities has contributing to a global warming of average Earth surface temperatures that could potentially lead harmful social, economic, and environmental consequences. An increase in the surface temperatures of the earth occurs when greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases increase. Human activities are responsible for climate change, as they produce emissions that trap heat within the atmosphere. These include burning of fossil fuels for electricity production, transportation, and manufacturing. Also, deforestation increases the amount of carbon dioxide. Other human activities include crop and animal agricultural practices; and fluorinated gases from commercial activities. Global warming endanger species biodiversity and may lead to extinction of some species. Flooding and drought are also both paradoxically triggered by global warming. Socially, global warming is a threat to food security, economic growth, and public health. Private organizations, governments, and the public at large should be aware of the causes and side effects of global warming.

References

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2018). How climate is changing. Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/effects/

Bilgen, S. (2014). Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 38, 890-902. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.004

Burke, M., Hsiang, S. M., & Miguel, E. (2015). Global non-linear effect of temperature on economic production. Nature, 527(7577), 235-239. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15725

Hansen, J., Sato, M., Hearty, P., Ruedy, R., Kelley, M., Masson-Delmotte, V., ... & Velicogna, I. (2015). Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: Evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2° C global warming is highly dangerous. Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics Discussions, 15(14), 3761-3812. doi: 10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016, 2016.

Lewis, N. S. (2016). Aspects of science and technology in support of legal and policy frameworks associated with a global carbon emissions-control regime. Energy & Environmental Science, 9(7), 2172-2176. doi: 10.1039/C6EE00272B.

Rossati, A. (2017). Global warming and its health impact. The international journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 8(1 January), 963-7. doi: 10.15171/ijoem.2017.963

Sherwood, S. C., Bony, S., Boucher, O., Bretherton, C., Forster, P. M., Gregory, J. M., & Stevens, B. (2015). Adjustments in the forcing-feedback framework for understanding climate change. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96(2), 217-228. doi: 10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00167.1

Trenberth, K. E., Dai, A., Van Der Schrier, G., Jones, P. D., Barichivich, J., Briffa, K. R., & Sheffield, J. (2014). Global warming and changes in drought. Nature Climate Change, 4(1), 17-22. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2067

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017a). Climate change indicators: Greenhouse gases. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/greenhouse-gases

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017b). Climate impact on ecosystems. Retrieved from https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html

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The following is PLAGIARISM REPORT for 'Causes and Effects of Global Warming: Research Essay Sample - by Homeworkvan'.

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[리서치 페이퍼 샘플] The Moral Grounding of Animal Testing: Final Research Essay Sample - by homeworkvan

안녕하세요 :)

오늘은 리서치 페이퍼 혹은 리서치 에세이에 대해서 포스팅 해드려요!
거의 대부분의 영어권 대학에서 자주 등장하는 에세이 과제로, 리서치 페이퍼는 필수이세요~!
English 수업을 제외하고도, psychology, sociology, economic 등등 리서치 페이퍼는 정말 많이 접하실거에요~
리서치 페이퍼에서 제일 중요한 부분은 어떤 소스를 이용을 하냐일것같아요~!
그래서 토픽을 정하실때도 퀄리티가 높은 좋은 자료가 많은 토픽을 정하시는게 유리하세요~
보통 그런 자료들을 scholar sources 혹은 peer-reviewed 자료라고 불려져요~
이러한 검증된 자료를 기반으로 리서치 페이퍼를 작성하셔야 점수를 잘 받으실수있으니 참고하시면 좋을것같아요 :)

아무쪼록, 저희는 어떤식으로 리서치 페이퍼를 작성했는지 샘플 확인해보시고, 궁금하신 사항있으시면 언제든지 저희 이메일로 문의 부탁드릴게요 :)

그럼 타지에서 유학하시는 모든 분들이 저희 리서치 에세이 샘플 보시고 도움 많이 되셨으면 좋겠어요!

감사합니다! :)

REASERCH ESSAY SAMPLE

The Moral Grounding of Animal Testing: Final Essay

Animal testing refers to the practice of conducting experimental projects on animals prior to human clinical trials to examine the toxicity, dosage, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products (Sepahban, 2015). For decades, animal testing to check the safety of human drugs has been in practice despite the contentious debate as to whether the practice is ethical.  On the one hand, proponents of animal testing posit that mainly the practice has enabled the development of vital life-saving drugs for humans and animals. On the other hand, opponents of animal testing opine that the practice is cruel on animals and that alternatives to animal testing exist (Akhtar, 2015). While concerns regarding the cruelty of animal testing are valid, animal testing has historically reduced the impact of deadly diseases necessitated by the complexity of anatomy and physiological aspects that leaves no adequate alternatives to save for the more inhumane experimentation on human beings.

Historically, the practice of animal testing has contributed to the development of life-saving drugs and treatments; without which humanity would still be batting severe illnesses. Franco (2013) asserts that animal testing has led to many scientific and medical breakthroughs in the past century such as blood transfusions, organ transplants, and vaccinations that have resulted to a better quality of life for humans. Experiments on animals are crucial to advancing biomedical knowledge, which helps to understand how drugs would work on human beings. Testing on animals has allowed scientists to identify side effects of medications before humans can use them. Additionally, animal testing also helps to evaluate the efficacy of drugs, and therefore determine their utility in treating human disease. This process therefore enables the development of drugs that are both safe and effective. The development of vaccines, one of the most significant advances in disease prevention and eradication, was aided in large part by animal testing (Botting, 2015). Testing on animals led to the development of vaccines against diseases such as smallpox, diphtheria and tetanus. Additionally, animal testing was crucial in the development of antibiotics; drastically reducing mortality due to infectious illnesses that in turn contributed to the population boom the world has experienced. Furthermore, the development of insulin revolutionized the treatment of diabetes; and this procedure was first isolated from animals (Botting, 2015). Animal testing has further enabled the development of more sophisticated forms of treatments such as cardiac pacemakers and organ transplants. These advances in medical treatment would not be possible without animal testing.

The argument against animal testing fails to recognize that there are no adequate alternatives to testing experimental cures and treatments on a living, whole body system. Humans and animals are similar in many anatomical and physiological aspects; and it would be difficult to accomplish the needed experimental therapeutic studies without using animals (Hajar, 2011). One, human anatomy and animal anatomy are both incredibly complicated for cell cultures in petri dishes to be used as alternatives. Drug behavior is not similar in cell cultures as within a living system, mainly due to the effects of metabolizing body organs such as the liver (Katzung & Trevor, 2016). As a result, a cell culture method is therefore inadequate to yield complete and relevant information; and cannot be solely relied on during drug experimentation. Additionally, In-vitro or cellular techniques also lack scientific validation and standardization (Mak, Evaniew, & Ghert, 2014); hence, they are not a viable alternative to conventional animal testing. Some opponents of animal testing have proposed the use of less sophisticated organisms due to their potential lack of a well-developed nervous system that increases the capacity to suffer and feel pain. However, even the use of less complex organisms faces drawbacks such as their lack of an immune system; making it difficult to carry out certain types of research such as vaccine studies. Therefore, the complexity of drug testing and the lack of a viable alternative makes animal testing a necessity in realizing future medical breakthroughs.

If animal testing is abolished, the only other physiological alternative is conducting experimental tests on humans, which is much worse. Incidents such as the Tuskegee syphilis experiments or the Nazi medical experiments reveal the inhumane and unethical reaches of human testing and the long-lasting consequences involved. Abandoning animal testing in favor of human testing would expose people to the dangerous effects of medicines in the preclinical stages of drug testing. In particular, toxicology tests that are essential to hazard and risk assessment cannot be carried out on human subjects as they would be dangerous for human health (Klitzman, 2015). Human testing would lead to mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic effects of drugs, as well as other adverse general toxic effects on the human body. This impact not only makes human testing impractical, but it would also be unethical to expose human beings to the dangers associated with drug testing. At the same time, computer models or simulations are still currently far from being reliable to provide accurate information about the efficacy and side effects of experimental drugs on humans. Computer-based methods are used to provide information about drug absorption, to model diseases such as asthma, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, as well as to evaluate drug toxicity (Doke & Dhawale, 2016). These models aim to predict relationships of drug interaction within the body; however, the information they provide is statistical and the results do not adequately capture the complexity of biological systems. Therefore, computer models cannot accurately predict human reactions to drugs; and such tests will still require additional animal or human testing. Other techniques such as microdosing, which has been proposed as a new technique to reduce animal testing by measuring how small doses of drugs move within the body, also have limitations as they cannot predict toxicity at higher doses (Ferdowsian & Beck, 2011). As such, the current alternatives to animal testing have not developed to a level that is reliable enough to provide conclusive evidence on the effects of drugs on the human body.  Animal testing therefore remains as the most appropriate solution for drug experimentation; and abandoning it for less effective alternatives would be an unrealistic endeavor.

Additionally, modern regulations have ensured that animal testing is performed with the ethical consideration for animals. Today, moral scientists attempt as much as possible to protect animals by not using animals or not inflicting pain where possible. According to Ferdowsian and Beck (2011), it is widely acknowledged among the scientific community that animals can experience pain and distress. As a result, scientists have modified experimentation to apply ethical measures such as te use of anaesthetic and analgesic agents to assist in reducing the impact of suffering experienced by animals. Other refinement techniques include improvement of animal housing to satisfy the physiological needs of animals and therefore improve their well-being (Franco, 2013). Where possible, animal testing is also conducted using noninvasive procedures by applying good animal welfare and humane science (Festing & Wilkinson, 2007). Scientists design methodologically sound research procedures whereby the method of administration and the effects of the drug on the animal are taken into account. This move is intended to reduce undue harm to the animal. Moreover, scientists operate under various legal controls for protecting animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes (Sepahban, 2015). These restrictions not only ensure that the use of animals is justified, they also promote fair treatment of animals during the research process.  Regulatory measures and legislation put in place by many countries, including the United States, help to ensure that animal testing is in line with ethical considerations.

However, opponents of animal testing argue that the practice is cruel and inhumane, and for some animal rights groups, the practice should therefore be abolished altogether. Animal rights groups and animal protection activists criticize the method of animal testing, citing that animals are subjected to unnecessarily painful procedures (Akhtar, 2015). The argument follows that from an ethical standpoint, all animals have a right to exist and not to be subjected to unnecessary pain in the name of scientific research. Also, it is common practice to euthanize animals used in testing after they have served their purpose under various medical procedures during their period in captivity. While it is expected that this killing should be done in a manner that does not subject animals to additional pain, animal rights group readily find evidence of animals subjected to death that in some cases can be considered to be cruel (Cressey, 2013). On the other hand, some opponents of animal testing oppose the practice on the grounds that no animal should be placed in captivity.  Additionally, while regulations exist to protect animal welfare, animal rights groups argue that these regulations fail to protect the animals most used for experimentation such as mice, rats, and frogs which constitute 80-95 percent of  animals that are experimented upon (American Psychological Association, 2002). These arguments by opponents question the ethicality of the practice on various grounds.

As a rebuttal, while these concerns are valid, it would not be reasonable to abolish animal testing altogether as it has significant benefits for human health. Complete and immediate abolishment of animal testing would have enormous and severe consequences for scientific research of cures and treatments; as it will hamper the development of medicines and medical devices. In the past century, incidents involving the release of drugs that had not undergone animal testing led to mass adverse effects, including deaths of hundreds of people. According to Hajar (2011), these incidents illustrate human harm due to use of substances that have not been tested on humans, and underlie the importance of human experimentation to avert or prevent human tragedy. Moreover, there should be a middle ground for how animal testing should be conducted (Ferdowsian & Beck, 2011). The purpose and benefits of testing should be considered, all while ensuring high standards of human welfare and considering alternatives where possible. In vitro testing does provide insights into an experimental cure or treatment but it is an inadequate procedure as far as the effects of the remedy on the human body are concerned (Doke & Dhawale, 2015). Alternative methods are therefore useful for understanding the model of disease or treatment but cannot replace animal testing.

With the need to develop cures and treatments for human and animal ailments, the lack of more effective alternatives due to the complexity of anatomy and physiology, and the ethics of human experimentation makes the argument for animal testing morally and ethically justified. Historically, animal testing has been beneficial to human health and it would pose a significant danger to medical research and public health if the practice is abandoned. This move would not only set back drug development, it would also harm human health by exposing human beings to unsafe drugs.  Nevertheless, stakeholders should work towards reducing the number and suffering of animals in research. Responsible use of animals in scientific research has benefits for both human health and animal welfare. Ethical animal testing through the use of the 3Rs; replacement of animals with non-living models, reduction in use of animals and refinement of animal use practices; is necessary for advancement in drug discovery, and helps to uphold the moral responsibility of humane animal treatment.

References

American Psychological Association (2002). Rats, mice and birds excluded from Animal Welfare Act. Monitor on Psychology, 33(7), 14.

Akhtar, A. (2015). The flaws and human harms of animal experimentation. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 24(04), 407-419. doi:10.1017/s0963180115000079

Botting, J. (2015). Animals and medicine: The contribution of animal experiments to the control of disease. Open Book Publishers.

Cressey, D. (2013). Best way to kill lab animals sought. Nature, 500, 130–131. doi:10.1038/500130a

Doke, S. K., & Dhawale, S. C. (2015). Alternatives to animal testing: A review. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 23(3), 223-229.

Ferdowsian, H., & Beck, N. (2011). Ethical and scientific considerations regarding animal testing and research. Plos ONE, 6(9), e24059. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024059

Festing, S., & Wilkinson, R. (2007). The ethics of animal research: Talking point on the use of animals in scientific research. EMBO Reports, 8(6), 526-530. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400993

Franco, N. (2013). Animal experiments in biomedical research: A historical perspective. Animals, 3(1), 238-273. doi:10.3390/ani3010238

Hajar, R. (2011). Animal testing and medicine. Heart Views, 12(1), 42. doi:10.4103/1995-705x.81548

Katzung, B. G. & Trevor, A. J. (2016). Basic & clinical pharmacology. McGraw-Hill Medical.

Klitzman, R. (2015). The ethics police?: the struggle to make human research safe. Oxford University Press.

Mak, I. W., Evaniew, N., & Ghert, M. (2014). Lost in translation: Animal models and clinical trials in cancer treatment. American journal of translational research, 6(2), 114.

Sepahban, L. (2015). Animal testing: Life-saving research vs. animal welfare. Capstone. 

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