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Chapter 2: Types of Academic Papers

In this section of the writing guide, I will provide you with different types of papers. Each has a unique writing style that will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections of the appendix section. The types of papers in order of frequency include:

1. Essays

Essays are the most common type of academic assignment. However, while they all follow the general essay structure [Introduction, Body, and Conclusion]. However, the purpose and overall approach of each type of essay is different.

1.1 Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is one that requires the writer to investigate a particular topic by collecting, generating and evaluating evidence to write a well a well-reason argument on a debatable issue in a concise manner. The three key considerations in an argumentative essay are:

Clear and Concise Thesis statement
Clear and logical structure and transitions
Evidence support in body paragraphs [MANDATORY]

NOTE: Remember to always include a body paragraph on the opposing view to your argument followed by a refutation.

1.2 Persuasive Essay

A persuasive essay is one that requires you to use credible evidence to others on your point of view. Usually, three persuasion paradigms are used to persuade the reader to accept the author’s position. You can choose one or two paradigms to use in your paper.

a. Logos - Persuade using logic and reason. There are two types of reasoning: inductive and deductive reasoning.

(Logos using a deductive argument)

All men are mortal, Smith is a man, Therefore, Smith is mortal

(Logos using an inductive argument)

The ball I pulled from the box was blue, the ball I pulled out before was blue, the third ball from the ball is blue. Therefore, all balls in the box are blue.

There are various ways that people use reasoning to change the influence opinions:

· If … then: “If A is true, then B is also true.”

· Cause and effect: “B happens because A has happened.”

· Either … or: “A is either true, or B is true.”

· Better and worse: “A is better or worse than B because …”

· Costs and benefits: “The benefits of doing A are worth/not worth the cost of B.”

· Facts and data: “Based on the following facts, A is true and B is false.”

· Examples: “For instance, A and B are the reasons that C happens.”

· Anecdotes: “Because A happened, to these people, it demonstrates B.”

b. Ethos- using ethos is persuading others using ethics or credibility of cited sources. Relying on credible sources is based on the authority, reputation or character of the individual. Use credible sources from persons who are knowledgeable/experts on the subject (Basically use high-quality peer-reviewed or book sources). Here are some common uses of ethos

· Personal experience: “I have experience with A, so I know it is true and B is not.”

· Personal credentials: “I have a Master’s degree in A” or “I am the CEO of B, so I am a leading authority on C.”

· Good moral character: “Based on my history of always doing the right thing, you should believe me when I say that A is best for you.”

· Appeal to experts: “According to C, who is an expert on this subject matter, A is true and B is not true.”

· Admission of limitations: “I may not sure about C, but I sure that A is true and B is not.”

· Expression of good will: “I want only what is best for you, so I recommend A as the best option for you.”

For Example:

"Ford (2012), a director at Tesla Foundation opines..... " or "Research by leading researchers at MIT have shown......"

c. Pathos - Persuade using an appeal to the emotions or feelings of the reader to make an argument

A writer can appeal to various emotions.

Promise of gain: “If you side with me, you will gain money, reputation, popularity, beauty, or love.”
Promise of enjoyment: “If you do what I ask of you, you will experience enjoyment, joy, pleasure fun, or freedom.”
Fear of loss: “If you do not do what I am telling you, you will risk losing money, popularity, beauty, or reputation.”
Fear of pain: “If you do what I ask of you, you will feel regret, pain, humiliation, sadness, loneliness, or embarrassment.”

For Example:

"If humanity continues on to destroy the environment, there will be no future left for the next generation"

"If such failures experienced by Kodak were replicated by Apple, it would become the laughing stock of the business community"

1.3 Exploratory Essay

In an exploratory essay, you should approach the topic from a neutral tone to express your objectivity on the issue. In an exploratory essay you are not trying to support a particular position, you are looking at contrasting perspectives and seeking to explain each perspective clearly, while also identifying a common ground. However, in the conclusion of an exploratory essay you should offer your personal opinion of the author on the issue and challenge the reader to decide his own opinion based on the facts presented in the essay.

See more: http://hubpages.com/literature/How-to-Write-an-Exploratory-Essay

NOTE: For most argumentative, persuasive, and exploratory essays, there is a free resource I recommend called procon.org. It lists the pros and cons of several issues. For instance, in an argumentative paper on mandatory vaccinations, the different positions (pro-vaccines and anti-vaccines) can be found at http://vaccines.procon.org/

REMEMBER, DO NOT cite procon.org. Just use it as a starting point to get the main arguments for your paper.

1.4 Compare and contrast essay

In a compare and contrast essay, the main focus is on how to things or ideas are similar to (the comparison part of the essay) and/or different from (contrasting part of the essay) one another.

1.5 Cause and Effect Essay

A cause and effect essay explains how one event leads to another event. In addition, one event can lead to several other events. This is also known as the domino effect or a causal chain.

1.6 Reflection Paper

A reflection paper is an illustration of your understanding of a given topic. In a reflection paper you must relate the class readings and experiences to how they have changed/influence your thinking and practice. Most importantly, remember that in a reflection paper you have to add your opinions, you are not simply summarizing what you have read and experienced.

NOTE: Since a reflection paper includes personal opinions, always use the first person singular (“I” or ‘me’) to relate the readings to your previous personal experience. Also ensure you follow the essay structure [introduction, Body, Conclusion].

In addition, a critical reflection essay is similar to a reflection essay, but it combines reflection with critical thinking. Therefore, from a reflection perspective you are supposed to include your personal opinion, and from a critical thinking perspective you are supposed to fit your ideas with concepts and theories presented by others.

2. Critical Analysis

Writing a critique is about evaluating someone’s work such as a movie, an essay, a book, among others. The objective of a critical analysis is to subjectively critique the work to increase a reader’s understanding of it.

3. Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetically organized list of credible sources (books, journals, websites etc.). Under each source you should write a paragraph that gives a descriptive summary of the contents of the source.

Best practices of annotation

a) Include the qualifications of the author(s)

b) Include the purpose/scope of the source

c) Mention the level of reading difficulty

d) Highlight any instances of bias

e) Highlight the findings and conclusion of the source

Another type of annotation is the critical annotation that goes beyond providing a summary and seeks to evaluate the source it terms of its usefulness and quality.

4. Memo

A memo is a type of business letter that is meant to bring attention to problems and solve the identified problems. A memo should be short and concise with headings that clarify the content of the segment. Importantly, the content should be organized in bullet form for ease of clarity rather than long paragraphs. Another type of annotation is the critical annotation that goes beyond providing a summary and seeks to evaluate the source it terms of its usefulness and quality.

5. Case Study

A case study is a paper commonly used in disciplines that are client-patient oriented such as medical studies, social sciences or law. The general format of a case study is as follows:

(a) Background of the problem

(b) The problem being tackled in the paper

(d) The application of the solution

(e) The results

(f) The conclusion

6. Peer Reviews

In academic work you can also be tasked with conducting a peer review. This process involves suggesting revisions to a peer’s (classmate) submission.

I’d like to first begin with separating notions of revision into two categories:

Global Revision – this is a return to the paper in which we reread the paper to see if it fits the purpose of our writing, and if it makes sense as a whole. Questions which are helpful would be:

· Did I fulfill my purpose in writing?

· Do my paragraphs flow together?

· Are there any concepts which need more description or explanation?

Local Revision – more commonly known as editing, this is when we look for sentence-level errors which impact our overall work.

For example:

· Is my sentence structure correct?

· Do I have any mechanical errors? (Such as this: …ending”.)

· Do I have any spelling mistakes?

Tip: as a professional writer and academic, what I often do when writing my own work is: do my planning, draft up the work, SAVE it, and then close the computer and go out and play. When I return with fresh eyes, I reread the work slowly and out loud, asking myself if everything is making sense.

I am attaching a sheet with common writing errors in student work for reference.

Then, our next question is, how to be helpful to our peers?

When doing peer edits, it’s helpful to comment to your classmates in using both global and local revision, and commenting on both what they did well, and suggestions for improvement.

Here’s an example from a student from on a classmate’s analysis on MLK’s “I Have a Dream Speech”:

Hi friend! Here’s my feedback on your paper:

For global revisions, I really liked your intro and how you explained the context of Dr. King’s speech, and I liked how you used textual evidence in your paper. For example, when you said, “Dr. King repeats the phrase, “Let freedom ring” in the last paragraph, and then names places all over the U.S. This is especially effective as a pathos-based appeal, since gives the listener a way to feel connected to people all over the U.S.”

Suggestions for improvement: Your conclusion is fairly short – only two sentences! Maybe you could beef that up by adding a personal reflection on what the speech meant to you?

For local revisions, I noticed that you had several misspellings throughout the paper, and there were a few times (in paragraphs 2 and 5) I couldn't understand your sentences. Maybe revise for clarity?

Hope this helps!

Sincerely,

XXX

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